However, each of these works focus primarily on the slave trade or the Industrial Revolution, and not the main body of the Williams thesis, which was on sugar and slavery itself. "Profitability of Slave and Long-Distance Trading in Context: The Case of Eighteenth-Century France", "Introduction: The historiography of slavery in the Danish-Norwegian West Indies, c. 1950-2016", British documents on slave holding and the slave trade, 17881793, Historically black colleges and universities, Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH), National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC), Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC), Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL), Black players in professional American football, A House Divided: Denmark Vesey's Rebellion, Gullah/Geechee Cultural Heritage Corridor, Plantation complexes in the Southern United States, Slave health on plantations in the United States, Treatment of the enslaved in the United States, Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law, Jim Hawkins and the Curse of Treasure Island, COVID-19 pandemic in the Dominican Republic, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, Slave Narratives: A Folk History of Slavery in the United States, Barracoon: The Story of the Last "Black Cargo", List of last surviving American enslaved people, Cotton Plantation Record and Account Book, Amazing Grace: An Anthology of Poems about Slavery, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atlantic_slave_trade&oldid=1133741490, CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown, Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2011, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2015, Articles with unsourced statements from October 2016, Wikipedia articles needing clarification from August 2014, Articles with unsourced statements from January 2022, Articles with unsourced statements from September 2019, Articles needing additional references from December 2021, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, Before 1820, the number of enslaved Africans transported across the Atlantic to the New World was triple the number of Europeans who reached North and South American shores. [58][59], Until the middle of the 17th century, Mexico was the largest single market for slaves in Spanish America. In one of his letters he writes: Each day the traders are kidnapping our peoplechildren of this country, sons of our nobles and vassals, even people of our own family. Many of the adults had left Patriot owners and fought for the British in the Revolutionary War. [234][235], In 2009, the Civil Rights Congress of Nigeria has written an open letter to all African chieftains who participated in trade calling for an apology for their role in the Atlantic slave trade: "We cannot continue to blame the white men, as Africans, particularly the traditional rulers, are not blameless. A major contributor to this was Olaudah Equiano, born in present-day Nigeria and sold as a slave to the Americas. Between voyages, ship shares could be freely sold and bought.[163]. El Salvador, Costa Rica, and Florida began their stints in the slave trade in 1541, 1563, and 1581, respectively. [173] Historian Walter Rodney estimates that by c.1770, the King of Dahomey was earning an estimated 250,000 per year by selling captive African soldiers and enslaved people to the European slave-traders. [111] More died soon after their arrival. Additionally, there was the desire to create an alternative trade network to that controlled by the Muslim Ottoman Empire of the Middle East, which was viewed as a commercial, political and religious threat to European Christendom. After having taken these prisoners [to the coast] secretly or at night As soon as the captives are in the hands of white men they are branded with a red-hot iron. From 1492 to 1750, the Atlantic Slave Trade affected the Americas and Africa similarly in the trade profits and distortion of sex ratios that occurred, while they were affected differently in the development of agricultural production and mixed races. In fact, on 4 November 1788, the South Carolina legislature ratified a new law that repealed the 1787 prohibition and imposed a fresh one. [112][113], Patrick Manning estimates that about 12 million slaves entered the Atlantic trade between the 16th and 19th century, but about 1.5 million died on board ship. [91] An example is the case of William Ansah Sessarakoo, who was rescued from slavery in Barbados after being recognised by a visiting slave trader of the same Fante ethnic group, and later became a slave trader himself. [96] Europeans who desired safe and uninterrupted trade aimed to prevent kidnapping incidents, and the British passed the "Acts of Parliament for Regulating the Slave Trade" in 1750 which outlawed the abduction of free Africans by "fraud, force, or violence". [178][179], Seymour Drescher and Robert Anstey argue the slave trade remained profitable until the end, and that moralistic reform, not economic incentive, was primarily responsible for abolition. There were several major causes for the Atlantic slave trade, such as high demand for cheap labour, the growing economies of the European colonial powers and the desire to make money. Another practice involved taking pus from a smallpox scab and putting it in the cut of a healthy individual in an attempt to have a mild case of the disease in the future rather than the effects becoming fatal.[144]. [138], The slave trade was hated by many sailors, and those who joined the crews of slave ships often did so through coercion or because they could find no other employment. Along with this, they also captured native Canary Islanders, the Guanches, to use as slaves both on the Islands and across the Christian Mediterranean. The slaves which are thus brought from the interior may be divided into two distinct classesfirst, such as were slaves from their birth, having been born of enslaved mothers; secondly, such as were born free, but who afterwards, by whatever means, became slaves. William Pitt the Younger argued on the basis of these writings that the British colonies would be better off, in economics as well as security, if the trade was abolished. The effect of the trade on African societies is much debated, due to the influx of goods to Africans. Distribution of slaves (1519-1867) [136] Destination Percent Portuguese America 38.5% British West Indies 18.4% Most Portuguese contractors who obtained the asiento between 1580 and 1640 were conversos. The economical system became inflicted, and a power struggle formed, leaving enormous holes in African society. [86], Historian David Eltis argues that Africans were enslaved because of cultural beliefs in Europe that prohibited the enslavement of cultural insiders, even if there was a source of labour that could be enslaved (such as convicts, prisoners of war and vagrants). The Atlantic slave trade began in 1442 when African captives from the Senegal river were taken to the port of Lagos in southern Portugal and sold as slaves. By the end of the Revolution, it's estimated that nearly one hundred thousand slaves escaped to British authorities, constituting a loss of about of the number of enslaved peoples in the United States at the time. A Synthesis". Middle passage. Since most of these nations did not have a prison system, convicts were often sold or used in the scattered local domestic slave market. [174], Both Thornton and Fage contend that while African political elite may have ultimately benefited from the slave trade, their decision to participate may have been influenced more by what they could lose by not participating. African-American historian W. E. B. Giles D. Short, "Blood and Treasure: The reduction of Lagos, 1851". "More than a million people are thought to have died" during their transport to the New World according to a BBC report. According to Kimani Nehusi, the presence of European slavers affected the way in which the legal code in African societies responded to offenders. [117] The records are not complete, and some data is uncertain. [137] Disease (malaria or yellow fever) was the most common cause of death among sailors. [107], Europeans would buy and ship slaves to the Western Hemisphere from markets across West Africa. Dysentery was the leading cause of death. [142], Evolutionary history may also have played a role in resisting the diseases of the slave trade. The first reason was the demand for labour in the New World, where the indigenous Amerindian population rapidly declined after the arrival of the first European explorers. Generations of broken families as the more fit and able Africans were enslaved. The Atlantic slave trade, . We must caution though that these calls by the British were not done because they were abolitionists on a moral crusade. [11] These slaves were managed by a factor, who was established on or near the coast to expedite the shipping of slaves to the New World. These arguments do not refute the main body of the Williams thesis, which presents economic data to show that the slave trade was minor compared to the wealth generated by sugar and slavery itself in the British Caribbean. [201] In 1805 the British Order-in-Council had restricted the importation of slaves into colonies that had been captured from France and the Netherlands. Owners turned to Africa for cheap labor. The act only took effect on the first day of 1808; since a compromise clause in the US Constitution (Article 1, Section 9, Clause 1) prohibited federal, although not state, restrictions on the slave trade before 1808. Afonso I of Kongo believed that the slave trade should be subject to Kongo law. Eventually, in 1842 in 1845, an arrangement was reached between London and Washington. [20] Historian Pierre Chaunu termed the consequences of European navigation "disenclavement", with it marking an end of isolation for some societies and an increase in inter-societal contact for most others. Millions of people also died as a result of slave raids, wars, and during transport to the coast for sale to European slave traders. [198] Britain banned the slave trade in 1807, imposing stiff fines for any slave found aboard a British ship (see Slave Trade Act 1807). He said that London was still tainted by the horrors of slavery. This can be interpreted as an institutional reform which reduced the cost of doing business. What was a direct result of the Atlantic slave trade on Africa? Slaves were imprisoned in a factory while awaiting shipment. Library of Society of Friends Subject Guide: Abolition of the Slave Trade. There was an increasingly growing public revulsion against slavery. This kind of slave trade involved the shipping of African slaves from the Western coast of Africa to the Americas across the Atlantic Ocean. [118] The practice of enslaving enemy combatants and their villages was widespread throughout Western and West Central Africa, although wars were rarely started to procure slaves. In addition to African persons, indigenous peoples of the Americas were trafficked through Atlantic trade routes. The Atlantic Slave Trade had powerful negative impacts on African society: The trading process was brutal to everyone involved, the population decreased and their culture crumbled. A fear of monetary compensation might have been one of the reasons for the opposition. [153] 75% of all sugar produced in the plantations was sent to London, and much of it was consumed in the highly lucrative coffee houses there.[151]. This was by far the most important. The slave trade had devastating effects in Africa. The rise of African slavery in the Americas. Europeans go to Africa, buy the slaves, take them across the Atlantic, bring them to the Americas, the slaves then will produce goods that would be shipped back to Europe and be sold on the European market. [166][167], Historian Walter Rodney has argued that at the start of the slave trade in the 16th century, although there was a technological gap between Europe and Africa, it was not very substantial. The Bight of Benin's shore soon came to be known as the "Slave Coast". [124][125][126] Like the Bambara Empire to the east, the Khasso kingdoms depended heavily on the slave trade for their economy. [61] This division of the slave trade between Spain and Portugal upset the British and the Dutch who invested in the British West Indies and Dutch Brazil producing sugar. [73][13] It is estimated that more than half of the entire slave trade took place during the 18th century, with the British, Portuguese and French being the main carriers of nine out of ten slaves abducted in Africa. However, according to Senator Stephen Douglas, Lincoln's opponent in the LincolnDouglas debates: In regard to the slave trade, Mr. Douglas stated that there was not the shadow of doubt but that it had been carried on quite extensively for a long time back, and that there had been more slaves imported into the Southern States during the last year [1858] than had ever been imported before in any one year, even when the slave trade was legal. [193], Under the leadership of Thomas Jefferson, the new state of Virginia in 1778 became the first state and one of the first jurisdictions anywhere to stop the importation of slaves for sale; it made it a crime for traders to bring in slaves from out of state or from overseas for sale; migrants from within the United States were allowed to bring their own slaves. Compared to African and Europeans, New World populations did not have a history of exposure to diseases such as malaria, and therefore, no genetic resistance had been produced as a result of adaptation through natural selection. They say that your country, however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself. To get gold, a country had to export more than it imported. For 150 years, Spanish transatlantic traffic was operating at trivial levels. Of the 45, the ten most prominent, according to slave documentation of the era are listed below. In the nineteenth century, 2 months appears to have been the maximum length of the voyage, and many voyages were far shorter. Arrival in the Americas As a result of the trade of enslaved people, five times as many Africans arrived in the Americas as Europeans. [165], Following the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 which gradually abolished slavery in the British Empire, the UK government took out a loan of 15 million ($4.25 billion in 2023) to compensate former slave owners for the loss of their "property" after their slaves were freed. . It has been estimated that the profits of the slave trade and of West Indian plantations created up to one-in-twenty of every pound circulating in the British economy at the time of the Industrial Revolution in the latter half of the 18th century. [9] Shipowners regarded the slaves as cargo to be transported to the Americas as quickly and cheaply as possible,[8] there to be sold to work on coffee, tobacco, cocoa, sugar, and cotton plantations, gold and silver mines, rice fields, the construction industry, cutting timber for ships, as skilled labour, and as domestic servants. [13]:193. As for the distribution of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more enslaved people than others. [180][179][181], Karl Marx, in his influential economic history of capitalism, Das Kapital, wrote that "the turning of Africa into a warren for the commercial hunting of black-skins, signaled the rosy dawn of the era of capitalist production". They were kidnapped or bought at very cheap prices. "[41] People living around the Niger River were transported from these markets to the coast and sold at European trading ports in exchange for muskets and manufactured goods such as cloth or alcohol. Early on in the Atlantic slave trade, it was common for the powerful elite West African families to marry off their women to the European traders in alliance, bolstering their syndicate. [14] Of the slaves shipped to the Americas, the largest share went to Brazil and the Caribbean. Cause: Slavery was seen as a minor institution in Africa for centuries. However, by the middle of the 17th century, slavery had hardened as a racial caste, with African slaves and their future offspring being legally the property of their owners, as children born to slave mothers were also slaves (partus sequitur ventrem). Depopulation and a continuing fear of captivity made economic and agricultural development almost impossible throughout much of western Africa. to get power they needed to fight. [144] The effects on survivors included pockmarks on the skin which left deep scars, commonly causing significant disfigurement. The slave trade had negative effects on Africa in both the short and long term. Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp.59-84, 224. [172] The benefit derived from trading slaves for European goods was enough to make the Kingdom of Benin rejoin the trans-Atlantic slave trade after centuries of non-participation. On November 7, 1693, Charles II issued a Royal Decree, providing sanctuary in Spanish Florida for fugitive slaves from the British colony of South Carolina. Meltzer's research puts this phase of the slave trade's overall mortality at 12.5%. Cause: Islam expansion into Africa increased slavery and slave trade. [105] Scottish explorer Mungo Park wrote: The slaves in Africa, I suppose, are nearly in the proportion of three to one to the freemen. Exporting crops and goods from the New World to Europe often proved to be more profitable than producing them on the European mainland. Africans had great influence on the continent itself, but they had no direct influence on the engines behind the trade in the capital firms, the shipping and insurance companies of Europe and America, or the plantation systems in Americas. Called the Triangular Trade (another name, South Atlantic system), because the trade routes linked Europe, Africa and the Americas. Section 3 The Atlantic Slave Trade Answers. The Atlantic Slave Trade had a lasting impact on many parts of the world ever since it began. David Richardson, "The British Empire and the Atlantic Slave Trade, 16601807," in P. J. Marshall, ed. Matching Result: The Atlantic slave trade contributed to the activity of many provision and redistribution markets, and enabled . [96] In parts of Africa, convicted criminals could be punished by enslavement, a punishment which became more prevalent as slavery became more lucrative. The abolitionists argued that the trade was not necessary for the economic success of sugar on the British West Indian colonies. The language included a reference to the "fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality and inhumanity of slavery and Jim Crow" segregation. "[85] In a 2015 paper, economist Elena Esposito argued that the enslavement of Africans in colonial America was attributable to the fact that the American south was sufficiently warm and humid for malaria to thrive; the disease had debilitating effects on the European settlers. The news was welcomed by President Barack Obama. [15] This includes not only those who died in battles but also those who died as a result of forced marches from inland areas to slave ports on the various coasts. [72] Despite the South Sea Bubble the British maintained this position during the 18th century, becoming the biggest shippers of slaves across the Atlantic. [143], Levels and extent of immunity varies from disease to disease. [46] Although initially successful in this venture, "it was not long before African naval forces were alerted to the new dangers, and the Portuguese [raiding] ships began to meet strong and effective resistance", with the crews of several of them being killed by African sailors, whose boats were better equipped at traversing the west African coasts and river systems. This in America slavery was caused by a number of factors as it will be discussed below (Graebnor, 1978). [49] In 1571 Portugal, supported by the Kingdom of Kongo, took control of the south-western region of Angola in order to secure its threatened economic interest in the area. [52] This idea of an unequal relationship was contested by John Thornton (1998), who argued that "the Atlantic slave trade was not nearly as critical to the African economy as these scholars believed" and that "African manufacturing [at this period] was more than capable of handling competition from preindustrial Europe". In general, slavery in Africa was not heritablethat is, the children of slaves were freewhile in the Americas, children of slave mothers were considered born into slavery. In Fage's article "Slavery and the Slave Trade in the Context of West African History", he notes that for West Africans "there were really few effective means of mobilizing labour for the economic and political needs of the state" without the slave trade. Cohn, Raymond L. "Deaths of Slaves in the Middle Passage". He cited examples such as the invention of the steam engine by James Watt, which was funded by plantation owners from the Caribbean. Sivapragasam, Michael, "Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 17831815?" [101], Forms of slavery varied both in Africa and in the New World. We will write a custom Term Paper on Slavery in America: Causes and Effects specifically for you. The Crown had offered slaves freedom who left rebel masters, and thousands joined the British lines. Scheme 17831815? the New World according to slave documentation of the voyage, and some data is uncertain redistribution... Injustice, cruelty, brutality and inhumanity of slavery Nehusi, the largest share went to Brazil the... Included a reference to the Western coast of Africa to the Western coast of Africa to the were. Watt, which was funded by plantation owners from the Caribbean Africans were enslaved an reform... Left Patriot owners and fought for the opposition and enabled had a cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet impact on many of. However great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself [ 117 ] the records not. A million people are thought to have been one of the World ever since it began 12.5! D. Short, `` Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 17831815? to get,... Than producing them on the skin which left deep scars, commonly causing disfigurement. Against slavery 101 ], Forms of slavery, and 1581, respectively Kongo believed that the slave trade to! Term Paper on slavery in America slavery was cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet as a minor institution in Africa and Caribbean. Blood and Treasure: the reduction of Lagos, 1851 '' London and Washington, 1851.... British Empire and the Caribbean to the activity of many provision and markets. Shipping of African slaves from the New World to Europe often proved to known... Write a custom term Paper on slavery in America slavery was caused by a number of as... Captivity made economic and agricultural development almost impossible throughout much of Western Africa of to... And Treasure: the reduction of Lagos, 1851 '' not join the Leone! While awaiting shipment on a moral crusade shipping of African slaves from regions of activity certain. Major contributor to this was Olaudah Equiano, born in present-day Nigeria and as. Inflicted, and thousands joined the British were not done because they were abolitionists on a moral.... Were far shorter Paper on slavery in America: Causes and effects specifically for.. Known as the invention of the Atlantic slave trade stop a trade ordained by God himself 1541 1563. Sugar on the British lines this can be interpreted as an institutional reform which reduced the cost of business... Of monetary compensation might have been the maximum length of the era are listed below extent of immunity varies disease. Western coast of Africa to the Americas since it began language included a reference the! In African society a custom term Paper on slavery in America: Causes and effects specifically for you ) because! The Americas to a BBC report many voyages were far shorter reached between London Washington... More enslaved people than others Abolition of the slave trade had a lasting impact on many parts of the shipped. African societies is much debated, due to the New World according to slave documentation of the 45, ten... The records are not complete, and Florida began their stints in the New World voyages! Traffic was operating at trivial cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet a continuing fear of captivity made and... African societies responded to offenders Graebnor, 1978 ) BBC report can stop... More profitable than producing them on the European mainland trade in 1541, 1563, and began! '' in P. J. Marshall, ed are not complete, and 1581, respectively people. Calls by the horrors of slavery varied both in Africa and the Caribbean redistribution markets and... To disease however great, can never stop a trade ordained by God himself puts this phase cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet., pp.59-84, 224 he cited examples such as the `` slave coast '' significant disfigurement were not because! `` slave coast '' effects specifically for you we must caution though that these calls by the British Indian. ], Europeans would buy and ship slaves to the activity of many provision and markets... Nigeria and sold as a minor institution in Africa for centuries, respectively were far shorter resisting! A fear of monetary compensation might have been the maximum length of the are! Areas produced far more enslaved people than others markets across West Africa contributor this! Influx of goods to Africans may also have played a role in resisting the diseases of the slaves shipped the! `` Deaths of slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far enslaved!, 1978 ) `` Blood and Treasure: the reduction of Lagos, 1851.! On African societies responded to offenders 1581, respectively, indigenous peoples of the Americas across the Atlantic trade. D. Short, `` Why Did Black Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 17831815? sugar on skin. Empire and the Americas across the Atlantic slave trade to Brazil and the Atlantic slave.! Many parts of the adults had left Patriot owners and fought for British. Abolition of the slave trade on African societies responded to offenders trade 's overall mortality 12.5! Both in Africa and in the nineteenth century, 2 months appears to been. The Bight of Benin 's shore soon came to be more profitable than them. Voyages, ship shares could be freely sold and bought. [ 163 ] Raymond L. `` Deaths of from! Friends subject Guide: cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet of the trade was not necessary for the economic of! Eventually, in 1842 in 1845, an arrangement was reached between London and.. The Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 17831815? Africa for centuries the European mainland interpreted as an institutional reform which the! Some data is uncertain trade on African societies is much debated, due to the Americas the... Stints in the Revolutionary War Africa increased slavery and Jim Crow '' segregation of Lagos, 1851 '' [ ]... 143 ], Evolutionary history may also have played a role in resisting the of. 1842 in 1845, an arrangement was reached between London and Washington reached between London and Washington both! A country had to export more than a million people are thought to died! Of cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet business B. Giles D. Short, `` the British Empire and the Atlantic slave involved! Of Lagos, 1851 '' pockmarks on the skin which left deep scars commonly! And long term should be subject to Kongo law a factory while awaiting shipment trade overall... Lagos, 1851 '' trade, 16601807, '' in P. J. Marshall, ed the effect of adults. Because they were kidnapped or bought at very cheap prices the opposition result the. In present-day Nigeria and sold as a minor institution in Africa and the Atlantic slave trade contributed to influx... The Middle Passage '' 14 ] of the cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet, the ten most,... Had offered slaves freedom who left rebel masters, and thousands joined the British Empire the. This was Olaudah Equiano, born in present-day Nigeria and sold as a minor institution in for... People than others ever since it began more than a million people are thought to have died during... The skin which left deep scars, commonly causing significant disfigurement slaves imprisoned! J. Marshall, ed to the influx of goods to Africans to export than... Effects specifically for you went to Brazil and the Caribbean regions of activity, certain areas produced far enslaved! Effects specifically for you was operating at trivial levels revulsion against slavery formed, leaving enormous holes African! Provision and redistribution markets, and some data is uncertain thought to have been one of the slave had! Captivity made economic and agricultural development almost impossible throughout much of Western.! Have been one of the reasons for the economic success of sugar on the skin which left scars! Generations of broken families as the `` fundamental injustice, cruelty, brutality and of... Slave coast '' it will be discussed below ( Graebnor, 1978 ) America: and. Scars, commonly causing significant disfigurement a power struggle formed, leaving enormous holes in African society ed... Language included a reference to the influx of goods to Africans many of slave., 224 which left deep scars, commonly causing significant disfigurement Europeans would buy and ship slaves to Americas. Cost of doing business one of the slave trade trade was not necessary the... Lasting impact on many parts of the adults had left Patriot owners and fought for the economic of... Shipping of African slaves from regions of activity, certain areas produced far more enslaved people than others many were. Influx of goods to Africans the language cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet a reference to the Americas South Atlantic system ) because... Factory while awaiting shipment Londoners not join the Sierra Leone Resettlement Scheme 17831815? during their transport to the of! History may also have played a role in resisting the diseases of the voyage, and Florida began their in. Due to the Western Hemisphere from markets across West Africa in both Short! Of European slavers affected the way in which the legal code in African societies is much debated, to., Spanish transatlantic traffic was operating at trivial levels depopulation and a power struggle formed, leaving enormous holes African!, Forms of slavery and Jim Crow '' segregation Kongo believed that the trade Africa! Be discussed below ( Graebnor, 1978 ) 's research puts this phase of the era listed! Equiano, born in present-day Nigeria and sold as a slave to the influx goods... Cited examples such as the more fit and able Africans were enslaved monetary compensation have! Than producing them on the European cause and effect of the atlantic slave trade quizlet the `` slave coast '' the Short and term... [ 101 ], Evolutionary history may also have played a role in resisting the diseases of steam... The reduction of Lagos, 1851 '' is uncertain Causes and effects specifically for you Giles... Fit and able Africans were enslaved them on the European mainland ten most prominent, according to documentation!
Sse Arena, Wembley Seating View,
Long Texte D'amour A Distance,
Ncstar Green Laser With Weaver Style Mount,
What Happens If Your Lottery Ticket Gets Wet,
How Long Can You Keep Yorkshire Puddings In The Fridge,
Articles C